The Use of Philosophical Texts in Extracurricular Activities in the Context of the Personal and Social Development of Children of Younger School Age

The paper focuses on the issue of the cross-sectional topic Personal and Social Development in the After-school Activities of Children of Younger School Age when based on the concept of philosophy for children. In Slovakia, there are supporters of this concept who strive to implement it into the educational process. The presented text is a part of wider research, and it represents one of the results of the mentioned eff orts. The aim of the paper is to describe and analyse the course and results of qualitative research carried out during the after-school activity. We focused on the possibilities of using a philosophical text for children and subsequent discussion in the area of personal and social devel-


Introduction
Th e issue of reading to and with children has several aspects and intentions. Th e reading of (artistic) literature is primarily related to the development of aesthetic feeling, a sense of beauty, or the formation of taste. 2 Th ese are also connected to emotional development. Reading literature infl uences the development of imagination and supports vocabulary enrichment, communication skills, and cognitive development. Literary texts, respectively work with it, can also focus on the formation of critical thinking or on personal and social development. One of the types of literature is a text written for philosophical discussion with children. Its primary goal is the development of critical, creative, and engaged thinking. However, it also takes into account social and ethical aspects. Reading philosophical stories for children has a place in both formal and non-formal education.

Th eoretical Background
Philosophical texts, respectively philosophical novels for children are a specifi c literary type with a specifi c purpose. Th e fi rst novels were written by Matthew Lipman, the founder of the concept of philosophy for children (hereinaft er referred to as P4C). He looked for a way to help children develop thinking. He considered literature to be an appropriate tool and wondered what type of literature was appropriate. He came to the conclusion that these should be stories close to children considering several aspects: Th is would have to be something young people would discover for themselves, with little help from grown-ups. Th e children in the story would somehow have to constitute a small community of inquiry, in which everyone shared, at least to some extent, in cooperatively searching for and discovering more eff ective ways of thinking. It was my thought that the little band of children in the story could serve as a model with which the live students in the classroom might identify. Such a portrait, of children living together intelligently and with mutual respect, might give children hope that such an ideal was feasible. 3 In the mentioned conception, such a text and its reading in a group became the starting point for the subsequent discussion in a group of children which Lipman called a community of inquiry. Its members work together to fi nd answers to some questions and problems, because only truly close people, and not just a 'group of friends' , can say without fear that they do not understand something. 4 Th e discussion has intersections with Socratic dialogue. It does not begin with the analysis of the term (this part is usually part of the clarifi cation of the question before the discussion itself), even if the process of defi ning the terms is usually part of it. Th e topic of discussion (question) is most oft en formulated aft er reading a literary text -a philosophical story created at P4C. Working with a philosophical text for children and subsequent discussion appears to be one of the best ways to develop critical thinking. Th e issue of this type of reasoning is currently relevant not only in European countries but also in countries with other cultural and religious backgrounds. 5 It is closely related to the development of reading literacy (as well as at an international level) which expresses the required basic skills of man in receiving and processing information from the text and their socio-cultural anchoring. 6 P4C is intended to clarify and deepen thinking that eases decisions. Th us, it supports the development of critical thinking. Lipman characterises it as thinking which helps to make a judgement 10 2020 as it is criteria-based, self-corrective, and context-sensitive. 7 Lipman does not stay at that level, though. He states that it is the development of multidimensional thinking that aims to strike a balance between reason and emotion, between the perception and conception of notions, between the physical and the mental element, between elements governed by rules and those not governed by rules. It is the intersection of critical, creative, and engaged thinking. Critical thinking looks for reasons (causal and purposeful), and works with the content and scope of the concept, with judgments, conclusions, defi nitions, etc. It is intended to prevent quick generalisations and prejudices. It is based on Aristotle's logic, and it represents a tool and a stepping-stone for two other types of thinking. Th e qualities of creative thinking are originality, productivity, imagination, independence, experiment, expressiveness, self-transcendence, ingenuity, integrity, etc. Engaged thinking requires the participation of the emotional sphere, interest in the problem, passion in solving the problem, and empathy. It is emotional and normative thinking. In practice, these three types of thinking cannot be separated; it is only a methodological division. Th e social and ethical dimension is evident in P4C. On the one hand, the stories address issues related to the mentioned two levels of life. On the other hand, the discussion itself concerns both the ethical and social aspects of the group's reality. In contemporary Slovak (and Czech) education, ethical and social development is an issue that is incorporated mainly into the cross-sectional theme Personal and Social Development (in the Czech Republic, Personal and Social Education). Th e state educational programme enables the introduction of a cross-sectional theme into teaching as a separate subject, but, most commonly, its content and goals are implemented across a subject. However, both forms can be combined. Th e correct implementation of the cross-sectional theme should contribute to a positive social climate of the school and good relations. At the same time, it is a topic that is currently closely linked to the requirements for the development of specifi c professional competencies of teachers. It concerns the competencies focused on the factors of learning with an eff ect on the individuality and development of the student's personality. 8 Th e objectives of the cross-sectional theme Personal and Social Development 9 direct a pupil to be able to: -understand oneself and others; -optimally manage one's own behaviour and expression of emotions; -favour friendships inside and outside the classroom; -acquire, use, and further develop skills of communication and mutual cooperation; -acquire basic presentation skills based on gradual knowledge of one's assumptions and apply them in the presentation of oneself and one's work; -acquire and apply basic social skills for the optimal solution of various situations; -respect diff erent types of people, their views and their approaches to problem solving; -prefer the basic principles of a healthy lifestyle and risk-free behaviour in one's life. 10 7 In the same way competences and key competences are mentioned in the European context, M. Lipman states that it is necessary to acquire several types of skills during the educational process, one of which is 'the thinking skills' . Although cross-sectional themes are embedded in curricula, 'the eff ectiveness of their work can be enhanced by relevant extracurricular activities' . 11 We used this aspect during an aft er-school activity which was attended by younger school-age children. Aft er-school activities, as well as the activities of school facilities in Slovakia, are governed by the educational programme of each facility, and it is formed by each facility independently of the other. Th ere is only recommended but not binding content, so the ideas for the topic Personal and Social Development can be inserted in extracurricular activities with the aim of non-violent and natural acquisition of communication and other soft or interpersonal skills (also referred to as soft skills), ethical behaviour, and emotional and spiritual development. Th e combination of reading philosophical novels and the subsequent discussion during the after-school activity proved itself to be suitable for fulfi lling the goals of the cross-sectional theme in question. 'Reading, as an expression of a personal focus on a certain kind of receptive activity, is refl ected in its quantity and quality in the overall way of behaving and acting of a person in all his roles. ' 12 Th us, from the research point of view, we were interested in the relationship between the philosophical text for children (respectively the process of reading, reception, and understanding of its content, and subsequent discussion) on the one hand and the children's personal and social development on the other.

Empirical Part
At the time of the aft er-school activity realisation and during the empirical research in Slovakia, several P4C supporters sought to mediate it to the pedagogical academics. Th e results of eff orts to increase awareness of this concept are visible especially in the academic environment at universities in Nitra, Ružomberok, Banská Bystrica and Bratislava in the form of (relatively under-represented) publishing activities and conference papers, but also, for example, the introduction of an optional subject of philosophy for children at the University of Ružomberok intended for students of preschool and primary education, or a summer school organised by the Faculty of Education, the University of Matej Bel in Banská Bystrica. However, the concept of P4C and the texts used in it are still not known to teachers in pre-school and school education. One of the steps towards implementation is the introduction of an aft er-school activity based on this concept at a primary school in a town in central Slovakia. At the same time, there was no research in the fi eld of implementation of cross-sectional themes at primary and secondary schools.

Research Objective
Th e aim of the research was to fi nd out and describe how a philosophical text for children can be used in extracurricular activities for children's development in the context of the cross-sectional theme Personal and Social Development.
We included the specifi c goals of examining attitudes, experiences, and behaviour of the participants aft er reading the text, and the subsequent discussion in the context of personal and social development.

Research Questions
Given the fact that we have chosen qualitative research, which is characterised by its circular nature, the issue of formulating research questions has been modifi ed, respectively we reformulated those questions 13 according to the emerging topics/categories in the transcripts of the discussions during the initial analyses. Monitoring the cognitive, emotional, and behavioural side of children during the functioning of the aft er-school activity proved to be an important aspect (with regard to the emerging topics). It also became a part of the questions.
In cooperation with the research goal, we formulated the following research questions: 1. What is the attitude of the participants to the issues related to their personal and social development aft er reading the literary text and during the following discussion? 2. How does the content of the selected literary text and the subsequent discussion about it aff ect the personal and social development of the participants? 3. What kind of literature, respectively the text for discussion, is proposed by the participants themselves, taking into account the aspect of personal and social development?

Th e Research Sample
Th e research sample consisted of two groups of pupils of younger school age attending a Church primary school in a district town (up to 30,000 inhabitants) in central Slovakia. From the research point of view, we were interested in the results of all of the children and thought of them as one unit. From a formal point of view (with regard to text coding), we have marked the group from the fi rst year as A and from the second as B. Th e fi rst group of students completed the aft er-school activity in one school year and the second group in another (2013-14 and 2014-15). In group A, there were eight fourth class pupils and group B consisted of nine pupils -four fourth class and fi ve fi ft h class pupils. In the results of our study, we did not eliminate the fi ft h-year children because the age diff erences of the participants were not relevant.

Type of Research and Methods Used
We have chosen qualitative applied research to meet the set goal and to fi nd answers to the formulated questions. As we only noticed certain phenomena in the perception and experience of the participants, we chose interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA). 14 Th e basic method was dialogue -both conversations and discussions. In addition to these two methods, we also used the creative activities of the participants. Given the objectives of this paper, however, we eliminated them.

Th e Course of Research
Th e research began with the introduction of the aft er-school activity. Its content and course corresponded to the concept of P4C. Th ere were 28 meetings, most of which had a classic structure (as implemented in P4C). It started with reading the text. Depending on the language, it was read by the researcher or the participants. If necessary, the participants asked questions related to understanding some words. Th is was followed by the formulation of questions for discussion. It is a type of questions similar to Socratic ones, 15 but they are asked by the children and not by the teacher (who plays the role of facilitator or coordinator in the discussion process). 16 Th e process of their creation has its criteria, and their use in P4C has its specifi cs. 17 During the aft er-school activity, the children could choose whether they wanted to create the questions themselves, in pairs, or in a group of three. Th ey wrote the formulated questions on the board. When the questions were written, the creators read them again. Th ey explained to others which part of the text relates to which particular question and the meaning of the question. In this part, the already mentioned clarifi cation of some words, with possible reformulation or the merging of questions (if they were almost identical), took place. 18 Th e process continued aft er the questions were adjusted and explained by voting -by choosing one of them according to the highest number of votes. If there was enough time, other questions were discussed according to the assigned number of points. From the very beginning, certain rules applied to the aft er-school activity, which the participants themselves formulated. One of the rules was that only those who asked for a word in an agreed manner could speak. It also meant that one would not interrupt the speech of another, that swearing or vulgar words would not be used, that they listen to others without disturbance, and so on. For the discussion process itself, it was true that one would use examples for one's statements (or counterexamples), would ask other questions, would react to each other, would not deviate from the topic, etc. Each discussion was followed by a refl ection. Th e participants evaluated the asked questions and reaction sequence. Th ey assessed other points such as who used the example, who used the counterexample, who defi ned the word/term, which question, answer, or reaction was aimed at children's involvement, who drew a conclusion (synthesis), or deviated from the topic/questions (and who pointed it out), etc. At the end of the discussion, the participants evaluated the course and respect to the rules. Th ey expressed their experiences or attitudes with respect to the activities during the aft er-school activity.
All of the activities were recorded on video. Based on this, research data were created following the transcripts and notes taken on the course of the aft er-school activity and on working with the transcript. 15  18 We consider it necessary to note that the formulation of questions for discussion initially caused problems for the children. Th e questions were either closed or worded in such a way that the answer was explicit on the basis of the text (these were mainly questions to remember), respectively the creators of the questions knew the answers and wanted to know the answers of others. It was necessary to give examples of questions based on the text and, at the same time, questions which would encourage discussion. Th e active participation of the teacher was a necessity in this case. Aft er about a month, however, the children were able to formulate questions with the capacity to develop dialogues, respectively discussion, and were able to assess for themselves what type of questions they had formulated.
For research purposes, we changed all the names (including their diminutives) of the children in the transcript in order to guarantee their anonymity. Th is was followed by the process of coding and subsequent saturation of emerging topics. We numbered each line of the transcript and marked the emerging topics in colour. Subsequently, we created a new column next to the transcript, in which we wrote only colour-coded words or phrases. Subsequently, we created another column containing analysis. In the next column, we wrote our own notes focused on the context, the sequence of topics development, and the relationship between emerging topics. We included notes about specifi c individuals as well.
We read the text several times and started following the vertical line. We created a new level of coding in the form of new categories, to which we assigned already created topics. Th e number of categories was then reduced in comparison with the topics. We fi lled in the categories during the next reading.
In the next step, we used the NVivo 10 program. Th is step was caused by the fi nding that many texts -statements of children -can be classifi ed into several categories. Such processing allowed us to search for common themes across the examined transcript. Th e created categories were, for example, emotions with a subcategory -cognition (when the children talked about emotions or experience) and a behavioural component (we recorded manifestations of emotions). Another subcategory was the classifi cation of emotions. Also, there was verbal communication, which we followed from a linguistic point of view, that is, it included subcategories such as formal and informal words, swearing, interjection, questions, etc. Another category was critical thinking. Subcategories were, for example, questions (this is an example where one topic fell into two categories), defi nitions, arguments, examples, counterexamples, etc.). A further category was, for example, school. Its subcategories include attitudes towards the school, teacher, examination, evaluation, classmates, etc. And another category contained topics related to relationships, etc. Aft er completing the categorisation and saturation of all topics, we obtained a large amount of data. It became the basis for creating new research problems and questions. One of them was the relationship between the text and the social and personal aspects, that is, the topic of the presented paper. Due to the basic research question, we also looked at enriching topics and the topics which ensure clarity. 19 For the analysis process, we have selected those that relate to research questions.

Literary Texts Used
We read texts which were directly intended for philosophical discussion, but later, in the course of the aft er-school activity, we decided to use other literature in accordance with the views of other P4C supporters. is not explicitly intended for P4C, but the content and way of writing correspond to philosophical novels for children. Th e book was published in a Czech translation, but we translated the text into Slovak for the needs of the aft er-school activity.
In addition to this literature, we also used books translated into Slovak which were not primarily intended for P4C. Due to their content and focus, they seemed to be appropriate. We also knew from experience that children like to read these books.

Th ematic Analyses
In the analyses, we present only selected parts related to the subject matter. Via the fi rst research question What is the attitude of the participants to the issues related to their personal and social development aft er reading the literary text and during the following discussion? we monitored those statements and reactions of the participants that are related to personal and social development (hereinaft er PSD). We focused on the cognitive and emotional aspects. We were interested in refl ections, characteristics, arguments, reactions, etc. In the process of coding and categorisation, topics appeared that we could also include in the goals of PSD: understanding ourselves and others; acquiring and using communication and cooperation skills; applying social skills in problem solving. Aft er reading the story of Frog and Toad, a discussion developed over an issue. Th e question was whether there is a diff erence between a sleepy head and a slouch? Aft er reading the story about courage, children discussed the question: Why do some people do unreasonable things? Th e children took the text personally. Th ey compared themselves with the characters, but they also expressed their desires and concerns. Many statements refl ected their own behaviour which, in some respects, was evident during the aft er-school activity. One participant, who had spoken negatively about the topic of learning before (in the sense that he does not like learning, that he does not want to learn), described a slouch as someone who 'does nothing and just lies down' (A2929). Another participant, who had expressed his interest in the racetrack before, described a slouch as 'the one who gets up only through the remote control' (A2941). According to another participant, a slouch is the one who 'does not move a fi nger' (A2965 We also included the issue of social skills aimed at solving various situations in the fi rst research question. Th e development of this skill was given space aft er reading the parts of the detective stories. One of the questions was whether we should let strangers into our homes and how to deal with them when they say they need help. Children are taught by families and in school that we should not let strangers into the home. Th us, they also presented such answers: Th e second research question relates to the issue of experiences and behaviour aft er reading the texts and subsequent discussion. We were interested in how the content of the used literary text and the subsequent discussion aff ect the personal and social development of the participants in terms of emotional and behavioural aspects. One of the goals of the cross-sectional theme, which is linked to this question, is to guide one's own behaviour and emotions. A frequent topic aft er the reading was the question of rules -those that we formulated together in the aft er-school activity and the ones mentioned in the used text. Th e story of Hitler's Daughter states that certain rules apply. One of the questions in the discussion was what would it be like if there were no rules? Th e participants reacted diff erently. Th ey seemed to respond on the basis of their own experience, on the basis of the perception of prohibitions and regulations especially: 'It would be great!' (A28136). But another participant responded: 'Without the rules, it would be terrible' (A8144). We felt that the children who had behaviour problems at school reacted spontaneously against the rules. Conversely, those who were good students at school stood up for the rules. However, during the discussion, they agreed that rules must exist in order to be able to live together normally. At the cognitive level, participants showed knowledge of the rules. Th e practical rules set out within the aft er-school activity, though, became a problem. Especially, it was acceptance, letting one speak without interrupting, sometimes also the usage of swear words and nicknames. Th e participants expressed verbal and oft en non-verbal experiences of such disrespect during the aft er-school activity itself.
Th e second issue is also related to the topic of PSD, that is, the preference for friendly relationships in and out of the classroom. In this topic we fi nd intersections with the topic of understanding oneself and others. Th e topic of friendship and the questions related to it appeared aft er reading the story Can Th ere Be Such Meat Flies Th at Taste

Results
All the topics that arose during the dialogues and also those that began to take shape during the coding were related to the stories used. Th e dialogues conducted in the group of children revealed the cognitive and emotional side and encouraged behavioural expressions. Th e fi rst question focused on fi nding out the attitudes of the participants. Th ese included attitudes towards the issues related to their personal and social development aft er reading the text and the subsequent discussion. It has been shown and confi rmed at the same time that children bring attitudes from the family environment and present them when thinking about individual topics. However, during the discussions, there were some shift s, especially in the cognitive area. Th e text itself oft en inspired the children to give examples, arguments, comparisons, and to create other questions during the discussion. Th e second question was aimed at changing behaviour and expressing emotions aft er reading the text and subsequent discussion. We have noticed short-term and individual changes in behaviour and the expression of emotions. From the results of this second question, new questions arise that could be the subject of further research: What is the appropriate text concerning philosophy for children if one wants to engage all members of the group (seeking community)? It turned out that not all of the children were always involved in the text. Another question could be directed towards the composition of the children in the group. It seems that interest in the text stems both from personality qualities as well as from the mutual relationships in the group. Relationships sometimes marked the process of the reading of the text or its perception. To a certain extent, these fi ndings also apply to the third question. If we relate the fi rst and second questions to the stated goals of the cross-sectional theme of Personal and Social Development, it turns out that children understand the issues of their own competencies, rights, and responsibilities. Th ey can distinguish them from those which belong to adults as well. Th ey can also assess the activities for which they are mature enough compared to younger children. Th ey know how to express themselves on the question of their future profession and express their desires and attitudes. Th ey understand the diff erence in gender and, partly, the role of men and women. Appropriately to their age, they are able to look for answers and arguments in favour of their claims. To a large extent, the activities revealed a natural potential to understand oneself and others during the activities. 29 Th e topics of the individual stories and the subsequently formulated questions and the ongoing discussions were supportive in this respect. On the other hand, awareness of limitations and awareness of failure or dissatisfaction with one's performance has been proven to be an obstacle to further action. It seems that the self-image of the participants also refl ects the attitudes of parents or teachers, and the children internalise them. 30 Th is applies especially to the moral and spiritual realm but also to attitudes towards oneself. At specifi c moments, there was little belief that they could achieve change. A low level of self-effi cacy appeared which may be related to the issue of self-esteem, fl exibility, but also with little experience. 31 At the cognitive level, the children have shown a relatively high level of understanding of themselves and others, but, on the other hand, they do not understand some problems. Th is concerns issues which they have no experience with, and new knowledge that deviates from their algorithms of understanding. It is the result of adopted patterns of thinking, attitudes, but also the habits from the family environment. It can be caused by a low level of cognitive empathy as well. Th e aspect of emotionality and behaviour showed the suitability of the discussed topics resulting from the text and subsequent activities. When the children succeeded in the activities and tasks and found a solution, they encouraged and guided others to come up with it as well. Th ey showed joy with their own idea and, at the same time, supported others. Success and the accompanying positive experience created a good climate. On the other hand, when they were able to propose solutions or solve a problem successfully, the joy turned into the spontaneous act of pushing the boundaries of discipline and violation of the rules of behaviour. Th e participants were able to name their experiences, but the problem was to direct emotions and solve problems accompanied by emotions. Sometimes, instead of solving problems, participants engaged in defensive or impulsive reactions, as it was diffi cult for them to accept guilt or failure as well as a need (for example, of a friend in a group). 32 As for the third question, that is, what kind of literature children prefer to create questions for philosophical discussion, although the texts for reading and their suitability is verifi ed by peers in pre-research, it cannot be said that they would be interesting for the whole group. We found out that many texts do not connect with today's children, or they are translated literature that was originally intended for readers from other cultural backgrounds. Th e children were most interested in the literature which was accompanied by a certain tension, but also in the one that had a strong eff ect on experiencing.

Conclusion
Due to the fact that the research was carried out during free time activities, the children were able to work in a much freer and more relaxed atmosphere than they do during the education process at their school. Th eir behaviour was also more authentic. Th ey manifested themselves in the cognitive, emotional and behavioural areas. Th ere are many possibilities of application of the cross-sectional theme of personal and social development in this form of education. Th e implementation of the P4C methodology proves to be suitable. Philosophical texts for children proved to be suitable for the creation of discussion questions and the subsequent expression of attitudes connected with personal and social development. Th e aspect that the text itself does not have such an impact on changing children's behaviour turns out to be problematic. Rather, behaviour is infl uenced by the subsequent discussion. Our research shows that participants know a lot, and that they can fi ght for some attitudes and beliefs. Th e dominance of the cognitive side over the emotional and behavioural side was significant. Children have a lot of knowledge (they can analyse, evaluate at their level), but they have a problem to process their emotions and guide their behaviour. Given the used texts, it turned out that not all titles were appropriate. When commenting on the 31  literature, the children did not explicitly express a negative opinion regarding any title, but there were negative responses in the discussions. It seemed that not all texts were attractive to children. During the reading, it seemed that some of the texts were not enjoyable for the participants. Th eir interest needed to be aroused during the discussion. Nobody commented negatively on the detective stories. On the contrary, when the choice was possible, everyone clearly voted for detective stories. It is worth considering the appropriateness of the used texts. Matthew Lipman created the texts which he considered most appropriate. However, he himself states that it is necessary to read stories that are close to children considering the problems they solve themselves. We perceive that there is little (didactic) literature in our environment, respectively none. However, the translated literature for P4C that we used did not prove to be engaging. If the literature is a suitable tool for the development of multidimensional thinking and personal and social development, it is necessary to use texts which contain current problems of today's children in the Slovak environment. If we want to deepen personal and social development, the texts should be enriched with this very issue. Th e original literature is supplemented by extensive methodological manuals. In the case of the use of suitable Slovak texts or the creation of new texts, it would be necessary -given the goals of the literature for philosophical discussions with children -to create methodological manuals for them as well.